| It is to be expected that there will be competing | | | | important consequences for public sector ethics. First it |
| justifications for many institutions and that all will be | | | | emphasizes those things which bureaucrats ought to |
| subject to dispute. Some of the alternative justifications | | | | do rather than those things they should not do. |
| would be as follows: | | | | Secondly it sees ethics as something for the |
| - The agency furthers a particular communal goal; | | | | organization rather than for the isolated individual. |
| - The agency performs an "integrative" function, | | | | Ethics is seen as what government should seek to |
| dealing with problems and smoothing the process of | | | | achieve rather than what it should avoid. If the only |
| social interaction; | | | | issue were to avoid the evil that government might do |
| - The agency is checking and balancing other public | | | | the answer would be simple -get rid of government. |
| sector agencies - the agency is supporting the | | | | This is what anarchists of left and right suggest should |
| operation of a free market; | | | | be done to government and some revolutionary |
| - The agency is protecting citizens from the unjust | | | | socialists would do with business. The answer to both |
| results of the free market -the agency is providing an | | | | is to look to the justification of each and to structure |
| example of how other organizations can be run. | | | | the relevant ethics, law and institutional structure |
| When this approach is applied to other institutions (such | | | | around that justification. |
| as the modem corporation, law firms and the | | | | This does not rule out substantial changes to either |
| independent Bar), there we see that some emphasise | | | | modem government or the modem corporation. It is |
| the benefits to the members of the institution and | | | | always possible that one or both will fail the test of |
| some to the wider public. Some of the competing | | | | justification leading to the logical conclusion that they |
| justifications will centre on the financial and | | | | should be abolished in their current form. But if that |
| participatory benefits that an institution provides for its | | | | conclusion is not reached this approach does suggest |
| members (whether narrowly or broadly defined). | | | | that the positive values by which government may be |
| Others will centre on the benefits to the broader | | | | justified should provide the key to our thinking about |
| society. | | | | them. |
| Today there is much emphasis on providing direct | | | | This concentration on positive prescription does not |
| benefits and considerable skepticism about claimed | | | | exclude a consideration of negative proscriptions. Thus |
| indirect benefits. However, it is important to recognize | | | | very strong negative proscriptions can be derived |
| that the same is true of no government organizations. | | | | from the positive justifications of public sector ethics |
| According to neoclassical economic theory, | | | | so conceived. Indeed, such derived negative |
| commercial corporations provide a benefit by supplying | | | | proscriptions are stronger for it. One way of |
| goods or services to the public at or below the price | | | | interpreting this is that this was because the actions of |
| the public are prepared to pay. However, many of the | | | | key public figures were completely contrary to their |
| most important effects of institutions are indirect. | | | | public duties and declared intentions. |
| Looking to the justification of government has two | | | | |